Pages

Monday 14 October 2019

What's New and Beneficial About Broccoli

  • Since our recommended cooking method for broccoli has always been Quick Steaming, we are excited to report on recent studies that show certain nutritional benefits from the steaming of broccoli (versus other cooking methods). Included in these benefits are better retention of vitamin C and sulforaphane when broccoli is steamed rather than boiled. BroccoliAlso noted in these studies are better firmness and more vibrant green color from short-term versus long-term steaming. "Short-term" in this context typically means 5 minutes or less of steaming, and "long-term" means more than 5 minutes, and usually more like 15-20 minutes. 
  • Connected with these steaming results in recent studies are clearly noticeable differences in nutrient concentrations that occur when steaming times are changed by relatively small amounts. For example, researchers are finding nutrient differences in broccoli steamed for 1 versus 2 minutes, or 3 versus 5 minutes. Many nutrients in broccoli are clearly sensitive to total steaming time, and as a general rule, all studies suggest that total steaming time be kept relatively short. At WHFoods, our recommended steaming time for broccoli florets and leaves is 4 minutes.
  • The anti-inflammatory benefits of sulfur compounds in broccoli have a strong research track record. Adding to this track record is a recent study showing broccoli benefits in small group of smokers who averaged at least 10 cigarettes per day. Participants in the study consumed steamed broccoli for a 10-day period. The daily serving size was about 1.66 cups per day, and the cooking method featured in the study was 10 minutes of steaming. Participants in the study experienced a drop in their blood level of C-reactive protein (CRP), which is a blood protein used to measure a general degree of inflammation. The participants also experienced an increase in their blood level of the carotenoid lutein and the B-vitamin folate. Since broccoli is our 16th best source of carotenoids and 5th best source of folate, these study findings definitely make good sense to us. But equally interesting for us is the amount of broccoli consumed in this study. At WHFoods, our "outstanding" level of cruciferous vegetable intake is at least 1.5 cups per day of cruciferous vegetables. The intake level in this study was very close to that outstanding amount.
  • In a recent study on organically grown broccoli, researchers noticed an association between the deep green color of the broccoli florets and their total carotenoid content. In other words, the deeper and more rich the florets were in color, the more carotenoids they contained. Since carotenoids are yellow-orange in color and do not contribute to the greenness of food, this finding may seem somewhat surprising. But it may give us a practical way to make our broccoli selections in the grocery if we are trying to choose broccoli with higher carotenoid content.

WHFoods Recommendations

Studies have shown that even kids like broccoli and one way to ensure that they enjoy it is to cook it properly by using our Quick Steaming method. Overcooked broccoli becomes soft and mushy, and along with this loss in texture comes a loss in flavor and nutrients. Begin by cutting broccoli florets into quarters and let sit for several minutes before cooking to enhance its health-promoting benefits. Steam for 4 minutes. See the Nutrient-Rich Way of Cooking Broccoli below.
You'll want to include broccoli as one of the cruciferous vegetables you eat on a regular basis if you want to receive the fantastic health benefits provided by the cruciferous vegetable family. We include broccoli on all seven days in our World's Healthiest Foods Meal Plan! At a minimum, we recommend 3/4 cup of cruciferous vegetables on a daily basis. This amount is equivalent to approximately 5 cups per week. A more optimal intake amount would be 1-1/2 cups per day, or about 10 cups per week. Our World's Healthiest Foods Meal Plan provides you with 12 cups of broccoli for the week - exceeding our optimal recommended intake level for all cruciferous vegetables combined!

Broccoli, chopped, cooked
1.00 cup
(156.00 grams)
Calories: 55
GI: very low
NutrientDRI/DV

 vitamin K245%

 vitamin C135%

 chromium53%

 folate42%


 fiber18%


 vitamin E15%


 choline15%


 manganese13%

 vitamin A13%

 copper11%

 potassium10%




 protein7%

 zinc6%

 iron6%

 calcium6%



This chart graphically details the %DV that a serving of Broccoli provides for each of the nutrients of which it is a good, very good, or excellent source according to our Food Rating System. Additional information about the amount of these nutrients provided by Broccoli can be found in the Food Rating System Chart. A link that takes you to the In-Depth Nutritional Profile for Broccoli, featuring information over 80 nutrients, can be found under the Food Rating System Chart.

Health Benefits

It's no coincidence that more than 300 research studies on broccoli have converged in one unique area of health science—the development of cancer—and its relationship to three metabolic problems in the body. Those three problems are (1) chronic inflammation (2) oxidative stress, and (3) inadequate detoxification. While these types of problems have yet to become part of the public health spotlight, they are essential to understanding broccoli's unique health benefits. Over the past 10 years, research has made it clear that our risk of cancer in several different organ systems is related to the combination of these three problems.

The Cancer/Inflammation/Oxidative Stress/Detox Connection

In health science research, there is a growing body of evidence relating cancer risk to a series of environmental, dietary, and body system factors. Understanding this set of factors can be very helpful in making sense of broccoli and its health benefits.

Anti-Inflammatory Benefits of Broccoli

When threatened with dangerous levels of potential toxins, or dangerous numbers of overly-reactive, oxygen-containing molecules, signals are sent within our body to our inflammatory system, directing it to "kick in" and help protect our body from potential damage. One key signaling device is a molecule called Nf-kappaB. When faced with the type of dangers described above, the NF-kappaB signaling system is used to "rev up" our inflammatory response and increase production of inflammatory components (for example, IL-6, IL-1beta, TNF-alpha, iNOS and COX-2). This process works beautifully in temporary, short-term circumstances when healing from injury is required. When it continues indefinitely at a constant pace, however, it can put us at risk for serious health problems, including the development of cancer.

Isothiocyanates (ITCs) in Broccoli

Research studies have made it clear that the NF-kappaB signaling system that is used to "rev up" our inflammatory response can be significantly suppressed by isothiocyanates (ITCs). ITCs—the compounds made from glucosinolates found in broccoli and other cruciferous vegetables—actually help to shut down the genetic machinery used to produce NF-kappaB and other components of the inflammatory system. These anti-inflammatory benefits of ITCs have been clearly demonstrated in lab and animal studies. However, it can sometimes be tricky to translate the results of these lab and animal studies in practical take-away recommendations for everyday eating.

The primary anti-inflammatory ITC provided by broccoli is sulforaphane. This ITC can be directly produced from broccoli's glucoraphanin content. Numerous anti-inflammatory mechanisms for sulforaphane are well known, including inactivation of the NF-kappa B pathway. In this context, it is interesting to note that the predominance of sulforaphane in broccoli is limited to the heading version of this vegetable. Also widely enjoyed worldwide is "non-heading" broccoli, often called sprouting broccoli, broccoli raab, broccoli rabe, or rapini. In these non-heading varieties of broccoli, iberin is the most common ITC, and it is derived from glucoiberin, which is one of the more common glucosinolates in non-heading broccoli). Yet another anti-inflammatory compound present in both heading and non-heading varieties of broccoli is glucobrassicin. (And in this case the corresponding ITC derived from glucobrassicin is indole-3-carbinol.)

Omega-3s in Broccoli

Lack of omega-3 fat is dietary problem that can cause over-activation of the inflammatory system. The reason is simple: many key anti-inflammatory messaging molecules (like PGH3, TXA3, PGI3, and LTE5) are made from omega-3 fats. While we are not accustomed to thinking about non-fatty vegetables as sources of omega-3 fats, it would probably be a good idea for us to change our thinking in this area. While there are limited amounts of omega-3s in low-fat vegetables like broccoli, it is equally true that their levels of omega-3s can still play an important role in balancing our inflammatory system activity. In 100 calories' worth of broccoli (about 2 cups) there are approximately 400 milligrams of omega-3s (in the form of alpha-linolenic acid, or ALA). That amount of ALA falls into the same general ballpark as the amount provided by one soft gel capsule of flax oil. While we would not want to depend on broccoli as our sole source of dietary omega-3s, we still get important anti-inflammatory benefits from the omega-3s it provides.

Other Anti-Inflammatory Benefits of Broccoli

Broccoli is a rich source of one particular phytonutrient (a flavonol) called kaempferol. Especially inside of our digestive tract, kaempferol has the ability to lessen the impact of allergy-related substances (by lowering the immune system's production of IgE-antibodies). By lessening the impact of allergy-related substances, the kaempferol in broccoli can help lower our risk of chronic inflammation.

Broccoli's Antioxidant Benefits

Vitamins, minerals, and phytonutrients all contribute to the antioxidant benefits provided by our food. Broccoli is a premiere example of a vegetable providing all three types of antioxidants. In the vitamin category, among all 100 of our WHFoods, broccoli represents our 3rd best source of vitamin C,10th best source of vitamin E, and 16th best source of vitamin A (in the form of carotenoids). It also serves as our top source of chromium, a very good source of manganese, and a good source of selenium and zinc. But it is the phytonutrient category in which broccoli's antioxidant benefits stand out. Concentrated in broccoli are flavonoids like kaempferol and quercetin. Also concentrated are the carotenoids lutein, zeaxanthin, and beta-carotene. All three of these carotenoids function as key antioxidants. In the case of lutein and beta-carotene, broccoli has been shown not only to provide significant amounts of these antioxidants but to significantly increase their blood levels when consumed in the amount of 2-3 cups per day.

Of special interest in this antioxidant area are broccoli sprouts. In the U.S., broccoli sprouts are not consumed nearly as often as mung bean, alfalfa, or pea sprouts. However, in other countries broccoli sprouts are more widely consumed, and they show up as concentrated sources of broccoli antioxidants. Broccoli sprouts also contain concentrated amounts of glucosinolates and have become especially interesting to researchers in this regard.

Consumption of Broccoli Can Improve Detoxification

Many toxins that pose a risk to our cells must be detoxified in our body by a two-step process. The isothiocyanates (ITCs) made from the glucosinolates in broccoli have repeatedly been shown to improve our detoxification ability. The bulk of the research on broccoli intake and detoxification has focused on a component of this process called Phase 2. Phase 2 of detoxification is the component of the detox process in which activated toxic substances get hooked together with nutrients or nutrient components to allow excretion from the body. Importantly, the glucosinolates in broccoli (and their isothiocyanate derivatives) are known to activate Phase 2 detox activity in our cells. (This activation is typically mediated through a pathway called Nrf2.) Because broccoli components can activate Phase 2 detoxification, they can help us prepare potentially toxic substances for elimination from our body. This enhancement of Phase 2 detoxification appears to occur with commonly consumed amounts of broccoli falling in the 1-2 cups per day range.

Broccoli and Cancer Prevention

The unique combination of antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and pro-detoxification components in broccoli make it a unique food in terms of cancer prevention. Connections between cancer development and oxidative stress, chronic inflammation, and inadequate detoxification are so well-documented in the research that any food improving all three of these metabolic problems would be highly likely to lower our risk of cancer. In the case of broccoli, the research is strongest in showing decreased risk of prostate cancer, colon cancer, breast cancer, bladder cancer, and ovarian cancer. We expect that risk reduction for other types will also eventually be shown to take place from regular consumption of broccoli.

How Much Broccoli Is Needed for Cancer Prevention?

Recent studies have also provided us with a much better idea about the amount of broccoli that we need to lower our cancer risk. At the lower end of the spectrum, it looks like an average of 1/2 cup of broccoli per day—only 22 calories' worth of broccoli - is enough to provide some measurable benefits. Few people have broccoli on a daily basis. But a 2-cup serving twice a week would still meet this minimum average amount. It's important to remember how little this amount actually in within the context of one week's food. A person eating 2,000 calories per day would be consuming 14,000 calories per week. A 2-cup serving of broccoli twice a week would provide about 178 calories—only 1% of the total weekly calories! At the higher end of the spectrum, studies show that more broccoli might be needed to accomplish other cancer-preventing tasks. For example, one study showed significantly higher urinary excretion of potential carcinogens from well-done, grilled meats given daily consumption of broccoli in the range of 9 ounces (250 grams) per day. That gram amount corresponds to approximately 1.6 cups of broccoli on a daily basis. We've also seen a study showing that "generous" amounts of broccoli can help optimize levels of antioxidants in the blood, especially beta-carotene and lutein. (Optimal antioxidant levels can help lower the risk of oxidative stress in healthy cells, which also helps lower their risk of becoming cancerous.) In this study, the term "generous" was used to describe consumption of broccoli in the amount of 3 cups daily. Once again, that amount would not be ridiculously high in terms of calories—3 cups would provide about 132 calories, or 6-7% of a 2,000-calorie diet. But it might be a greater amount that many people would want to consume on a regular basis. At WHFoods, our minimum recommendation for cruciferous vegetables is 3/4 cup per day, and our outstanding intake level is 1.5 cups per day. Of course, these recommendations are for intake of all cruciferous vegetables combined, and not only broccoli.

For us, the bottom line here is not to treat broccoli like garnish. In recipes like our Asian-Flavored Broccoli with Tofu or 5-Minute Broccoli with Feta Cheese and Kalamata Olives recipes, we use 1 pound of broccoli to provide two servings. That's approximately 1.5 cups of broccoli per serving. There is no reason to shy away from 2-3 cup servings of broccoli when enjoying this cruciferous vegetable, especially if you want to optimize its cancer-preventing benefits. But make sure you're not simply "decorating" your plate with single broccoli stalk and floret.

Broccoli and Digestive Support

The digestive support provided by broccoli falls into two basic categories: fiber support, and ITC (isothiocyanate) support. At approximately 1 gram of dietary fiber for every 10 calories, you don't have to eat much broccoli to get a large amount of your daily requirement! For 100 calories—only 5% of a 2,000-calorie diet—you get about 10 grams of fiber, or 40% of the Daily Value (DV). And, 250 calories of broccoli (about 12% of a 2,000-calorie diet) will give you the full daily requirement for this important nutrient! Few components of food support our digestive system as well as fiber. The speed that food travels through us, the consistency of food as it moves through our intestine, and bacterial populations in our intestine are all supported as well as regulated by dietary fiber.

Alongside of broccoli's dietary fibers are its glucosinolates. These phytonutrients are converted by our bodies into isothiocyanates (ITCs). ITCs—and particularly sulforaphane—help protect the health of our stomach lining by helping prevent bacterial overgrowth of Helicobacter pylori or too much clinging by this bacterium to our stomach wall. Broccoli sprouts appear to have especially strong stomach support properties in this regard.

Broccoli and Cardiovascular Support

Recent studies continue to show intake of broccoli as being able to lower levels of LDL-cholesterol in our bloodstream. In fact, one recent study showed a drop of LDL-cholesterol by about 2.5% after intake of 1/3 cup of broccoli per day for 3 months. That's a fairly quick drop and a fairly small amount of broccoli—especially since our minimum daily recommendation at WHFoods for cruciferous vegetables (including broccoli) is 3/4 cup. This basic relationship between broccoli intake and LDL reduction holds true for both raw and steamed broccoli. However, recent studies also show a stronger link between intake of steamed broccoli and LDL-cholesterol reduction than between LDL reduction and intake of raw broccoli.

Yet, owing to the new transition in thinking about the role of LDL reduction for our health, the implication of this benefit isn't clear. The reason for this is that current research on diet and cardiovascular disease is undergoing an unusual kind of transition when it comes to looking at LDL cholesterol. For example, one medical study has found that individuals with high LDL-cholesterol levels tend to live as long—and sometimes longer—than individuals with average or low LDL levels. In this general context, it is also worth pointing out that for the years 2015-2020, the Dietary Guidelines for Americans (issued jointly by the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services and U.S. Department of Agriculture) have eliminated a previous recommendation to restrict dietary cholesterol intake to a level of 300 milligrams per day. This change in the recommendations is the result of a changing medical perspective on the role of blood cholesterol (including LDL-cholesterol) as a factor in cardiovascular disease.

While we remain highly confident about the cardiovascular benefits of broccoli, we suspect that the reasons for these health benefits are going to start pointing less and less to cholesterol management and more and more to better control of inflammation and decreased oxidative stress within our blood vessels. We also suspect that the phytonutrients in broccoli will become increasingly important in our understanding of broccoli intake and reduced risk of cardiovascular disease, and that these phytonutrients will become better understood in their role as modifiers of cell signaling and communications related to our cardiovascular health.
The B-complex vitamins in broccoli can also make a major contribution to our cardiovascular health. Especially with respect to excessive formation of homocysteine—an event which raises our risk of atherosclerosis, stroke, and heart attack—B-complex vitamin deficiency intake can pose a major risk. Three B vitamins especially important for lowering our risk of hyperhomocysteinemia (excessive formation of homocysteine) are vitamin B6, vitamin B12, and folate. (And as mentioned earlier in this article, daily intake of 1.66 cups of steamed broccoli over a very short 10-day period has been shown to raise blood folate levels in a small group study of cigarette smokers.) By making an important contribution to our B6 and folate intake, broccoli can help us lower our risk of excessive homocysteine formation and cardiovascular problems that are related to excess homocysteine.

Other Health Benefits Provided by Broccoli

Three other areas of health benefits are important to mention when considering broccoli and its unique combination of nutrients. The first area is eye health. Two carotenoids found in significant concentrations in broccoli—lutein and zeaxanthin—play an especially important role in the health of the eye. In fact, no tissue in the body is more concentrated with lutein than the area in the outer portion of the retina (called the peripheral retina). Similarly, in the macula near the central portion of the retina, zeaxanthin is uniquely concentrated. Risk of problems involving the macula of the eye (for example, macular degeneration) and problems involving the lens area of the eye (for example, cataracts) have both been show to lessen with intake of foods (including broccoli) that provide significant amounts of the lutein and zeaxanthin carotenonids.

A second area in which broccoli may show benefit is diabetes risk. While we still lack large-scale human studies in this area, the metabolic impact of broccoli glucosinolates overlaps substantially with the metabolic changes needed to lower risk of type 2 diabetes. Insofar as oxidative stress is a known risk factor for development of type 2 diabetes, the antioxidant benefits of broccoli are also highly likely to be involved in this potential health benefit.

A third area of increasing research interest involves the metabolism of vitamin D. Broccoli is not a source of this vitamin, but it is an excellent source of vitamin K and also of vitamin A (in one of its precursor forms, beta-carotene). Many individuals have large vitamin D deficiencies that cannot be remedied through diet alone, and these deficiencies require sizable amounts of vitamin D to be provided through dietary supplementation. When large supplemental doses of vitamin D are needed to offset deficiency, ample supplies of vitamin K and vitamin A appear to help keep our vitamin D metabolism in the proper balance. Assuring adequate intake of vitamins K and A alongside of vitamin D supplementation may turn out to be important in achieving optimal vitamin D supplementation results and avoiding potential problems related to supplementation. Broccoli may turn out to play a particularly helpful role in balancing this set of events by providing its unusually strong combination of both vitamin A and vitamin K. As mentioned earlier in this article, broccoli is our 16th best source of vitamin A (in the form of carotenoids) at WHFoods. It is also our 9th best source of vitamin K.

Description

All cruciferous vegetables provide integrated nourishment across a wide variety of nutritional categories and provide broad support across a wide variety of body systems as well. For more on cruciferous vegetables see:
Broccoli is one of the best-known cruciferous vegetables and is enjoyed worldwide in many different kinds of cuisine. While we often refer to broccoli as a cruciferous vegetable, we could just as easily call it a "brassica" vegetable. In the science classification systems, the family of foods called the "cruciferous" family are now generally referred to as the "brassica" family. (In Latin, the family names Cruciferea and Brassicaceae both refer to the same family of plants, and this family includes not only broccoli but also bok choy, Brussels sprouts, cabbage, cauliflower, collards, kale, mustard greens, and turnip greens. You will also hear this plant family being referred to as the mustard family or the cabbage family. Among the cruciferous vegetables, broccoli is closely related to cauliflower, and in fact, gets lumped together with cauliflower in many analyses of global imports and exports.
In the U.S., heading varieties of broccoli are by far the most commonly consumed varieties. "Heading" in this context refers to the physical formation of the flowering portion of the broccoli plant in one concentrated area. It's no accident that we refer to the components of the broccoli head as "florets" since these "florets" are actually flowers not yet in bloom. If left to mature further on the stalk, the green floret-based heads of the broccoli would turn into yellow flower blossoms.

Not all broccoli is head-forming, however. Some varieties of this vegetable develop florets throughout the plant at the ends of the shoots. Non-heading broccoli can be referred to by a variety of names including rapini, broccoli raab, broccoli rabe, and sprouting broccoli.

All varieties of broccoli belong to the Brassica genus of plants. Heading varieties of broccoli typically belong to the oleracea species of this genus, and non-heading varieties usually belong to the rapa species. The number of subspecies for broccoli is quite large, and involves dozens of different cultivars.

In terms of color, broccoli varieties can range from deep sage to dark green to purplish green. Popular varieties of broccoli enjoyed in the U.S. include Calabrise and De Cicco, and you can recognize the Italian origins of these varieties in their Italian-sounding names.

History

Much of our knowledge about food plants and food plant biology is tied in with our understanding of cruciferous vegetables. The Cruciferae (Brassicaceae) family of plants is found on virtually all continents and it is particularly diverse and plentiful in the Mediterranean area of Europe, the central and western areas of Asia, and the western half of North America. Some of the more recent aspects of this vegetable's history involve its cultivation in Europe and transport to North America. Within a broader historical context, broccoli started out as a form of wild cabbage, and it took centuries of selective planting and agricultural practice to allow for its evolution into the familiar varieties that we enjoy today.

While broccoli is grown commercially in many states throughout the U.S., about 90% of U.S. production takes place in the state of California. Cultivation of broccoli in California makes use of about 115,000 acres of land throughout the state, and about 1.8 billion pounds of broccoli are produced each year. U.S consumers average about 6.75 pounds of broccoli consumption per year. While this amount may not seem like a large amount, it has increased consistently over recent decades. After California, the next largest U.S. producer of broccoli is Arizona. In terms of U.S. imports, the largest amount of broccoli brought into the country is from Mexico.

How to Select and Store

Choose broccoli with floret clusters that are compact and not bruised. They should be uniformly colored, either dark green, sage or purple-green, depending upon variety, and with no yellowing. In addition, they should not have any yellow flowers blossoming through, as this is a sign of over maturity. The stalk and stems should be firm with no slimy spots appearing either there or on the florets. If leaves are attached, they should be vibrant in color and not wilted.

At WHFoods, we encourage the purchase of certified organically grown foods, and broccoli is no exception. Repeated research studies show that your likelihood of exposure to contaminants such as pesticides and heavy metals can be greatly reduced through the purchased of certified organic broccoli. In many cases, you may be able to find a local organic grower who sells broccoli but has not applied for formal organic certification either through the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) or through a state agency. (Examples of states offering state-certified organic foods include California, New York, Oregon, and Vermont and Washington.) However, if you are shopping in a large supermarket, your most reliable source of organically grown broccoli is very likely to be broccoli that displays the USDA organic logo.

To store, place broccoli in a plastic bag, removing as much of the air from the bag as possible. Store in the refrigerator where it will keep for 7 days. Do not wash broccoli before storing because exposure to water encourages spoilage. Partial heads of broccoli should be placed in a well-sealed container or plastic bag and refrigerated.

Here is some background on why we recommend refrigerating broccoli. Whenever food is stored, four basic factors affect its nutrient composition: exposure to air, exposure to light, exposure to heat, and length of time in storage. Vitamin C, vitamin B6, and carotenoids are good examples of nutrients highly susceptible to heat, and for this reason, their loss from food is very likely to be slowed down through refrigeration.

Since some nutrients (for example, vitamin C) can be lost once broccoli has been cut, it is best to use cut broccoli within a couple of days.

Broccoli that has been blanched and then frozen can stay up to a year. Leftover cooked broccoli should be placed in tightly covered container and stored in the refrigerator where it will keep for a few days.

Broccoli that has been blanched and then frozen can stay up to a year. Leftover cooked broccoli should be placed in tightly covered container and stored in the refrigerator where it will keep for a few days.

Tips for Preparing and Cooking

Tips for Preparing Broccoli

Rinse broccoli under cold running water. Cut florets into quarters for quick and even cooking. Be sure to enjoy the stems and leaves of broccoli; they provide a good balance of flavors. Peel the broccoli stem and cut the stem into 1/2" slices. To get unique health benefits from broccoli, let it sit for several minutes before cooking.

The Nutrient-Rich Way of Cooking Broccoli

Studies have examined many different ways of cooking broccoli, and from a nutritional standpoint, there appear to be different strengths with different methods. For example, we've seen one recent study where 5 minutes of boiling was best for retaining the flavonoids kaempferol and quercetin. For retention of the carotenoids lutein and beta-carotene, 5 minutes of boiling also provided good results. In another recent study, microwaving turned out better than steaming for retention of vitamin C and chlorophyll, and interestingly, pressure cooking turned out to be the best of all methods for retention of vitamin C in broccoli.

With respect to the glucosinolates present in broccoli, boiling appears less desirable than steaming. In addition, retention of glucosinolates in broccoli seems best with shorter steaming times. In one study, the different between 1 minute of steaming and 2 minutes of steaming turned out to be a significant difference, with better retention after 1 minute only of steaming. Finally, with respect to total antioxidant capacity (as measured by "FRAP," which stands for "ferric reducing antioxidant potential" and is a commonly used lab method for measuring antioxidant activity), one recent study has shown 5-10 minutes of steaming to produce the best results. The value of steaming for total antioxidant capacity appears closely related to broccoli's total phenol content.

As you can see by the research results above, the nutritional impact of various cooking methods for broccoli depends on the specific nutrient in question, and different methods have different strengths in terms of nutrient outcome. At WHFoods, we recommend Quick Steaming as the best cooking method for broccoli. We chose this method because we believe it provides the best possible trade-off between flavor, texture, and nutrition. Studies make it clear that short duration steaming is a great way to preserve total antioxidant capacity and total phenol content. And while other cooking methods may do a better job preserving specific nutrients like quercetin and kaempferol —or even vitamin C—we still like the overall results of steaming best, and believe that some of the nutrient trade-offs are definitely worth making given the superior results in terms of flavor and texture.
For most every cooking method, some nutritional trade-offs can be found in the research. At WHFoods, we believe those trade-offs should leave you more delighted with the final results and enjoying these wonderful foods more frequently!

Here are some specific steps you'll need to take when cooking broccoli. Since the fibrous stems take longer to cook, they can be prepared separately for a few minutes before adding the florets. For quicker cooking, make lengthwise slits in the stems. While people do not generally eat the leaves, they are perfectly edible and contain concentrated amounts of nutrients.

Fill the bottom of a steamer pot with 2 inches of water. While waiting for the water to come to a rapid boil prepare broccoli florets and stems. Steam stems for 2 minutes before adding the florets and leaves. Steam for 4 more minutes. Toss with our Mediterranean Dressing and top with your favorite optional ingredients. For details see, 4-Minute Broccoli with Feta Cheese and Kalamata Olives.

Stir-Frying Broccoli

In general, we try to avoid the stir-frying of foods in oil due to risk of nutrient damage in the oil from high heat. That being said, we have seen a study of broccoli stir-frying that produced some encouraging results with respect to nutrient retention in the broccoli. (The study did not measure nutrient damage in the oil.) The stir-frying took place for 3-1/2 minutes in a frying pan heated to 248°-284°F (120°-140°C). Approximately two-thirds or more of the nutrients examined (including vitamins, minerals, phenols, and glucosinolates) were retained after stir-frying. Given these results, if you are planning to stir-fry your broccoli, we'd recommend a lower-heat skillet (at approximately 250°F/121°C) and a relatively short stir-frying time of about 3 minutes or less.

Raw Broccoli and Broccoli Sprouts

Both cooked and raw broccoli can make excellent additions to your meal plan. If you enjoy raw broccoli, by all means include it in your diet! There may be some special advantages for your digestive tract when broccoli is eaten in uncooked form. And if you're concerned about issues involving enzymes and sulfur compounds in broccoli—don't be! With fresh raw broccoli, simple slicing a few minutes prior to eating or thorough chewing of unsliced pieces will help activate sulfur-metabolizing enzymes. Another form of broccoli you may also want to try in you enjoy raw broccoli is broccoli sprouts. Some of the nutrients found in broccoli—including vitamin C and glucosinolates—are especially concentrated in broccoli sprouts. Remember that all raw broccoli requires more thorough chewing than cooked broccoli, so take your time enjoying the textures and flavors of this amazing vegetable.

Nutrient and Health Benefits of Raw Broccoli

We've been especially impressed in the most recent research by the impact of uncooked broccoli—as well as uncooked broccoli sprouts—on the health of the stomach and stomach lining. Many stomach problems have been linked in research studies with overgrowth of a bacterium called Helicobacter pylori, and also with excessive attachment of this bacterium to the inner stomach lining. Raw broccoli sprouts appear to provide special stomach support with respect to these unwanted overgrowth and over-attachment circumstances. It's not that steamed broccoli provides no support in this regard, because it does provide support. It's just that uncooked broccoli and broccoli sprouts may be especially helpful in providing these benefits. We've seen several research studies using what's called "HG broccoli," or high glucoraphanin broccoli, to investigate genetic activities in the stomach lining cells. Glucoraphanin is one of the glucosinolates found in broccoli that it is clearly a key part of broccoli's ability to support stomach health. "HG broccoli" is not a commercially marketed form of broccoli that you can find in the grocery store, but ordinary broccoli will still provide you with plenty of glucoraphanin and other health-supportive glucosinolates.

How to Enjoy

A Few Quick Serving Ideas

  • Toss pasta with olive oil, pine nuts and steamed broccoli florets. Add salt and pepper to taste.
  • Purée cooked broccoli and cauliflower, then combine with seasonings of your choice to make a simple, yet delicious, soup.
  • Add broccoli florets and chopped stalks to omelets.

WHFoods Recipes That Feature Broccoli

If you'd like even more recipes and ways to prepare broccoli the Nutrient-Rich Way, you may want to explore The World's Healthiest Foods book.

Individual Concerns

Broccoli and Goitrogens

You may sometimes hear broccoli being described as a food that contains "goitrogens," or as a food that is "goitrogenic." For helpful information in this area—including our WHFoods Recommendations—please see our article What is meant by the term "goitrogen" and what is the connection between goitrogens, food, and health?.

Nutritional Profile

Broccoli is an excellent source of vitamin K, vitamin C, chromium and folate. It is a very good source of dietary fiber, pantothenic acid, vitamin B6, vitamin E, manganese, phosphorus, choline, vitamin B1, vitamin A (in the form of carotenoids), potassium and copper. Broccoli is also a good source of vitamin B1, magnesium, omega-3 fatty acids, protein, zinc, calcium, iron, niacin and selenium.
Broccoli is also concentrated in phytonutrients. In one particular phytonutrient category—glucosinolates—broccoli is simply outstanding. The isothiocyanates (ITCs) made from broccoli's glucosinolates are one of the keys to broccoli's cancer-preventive benefits.

Introduction to Food Rating System Chart

In order to better help you identify foods that feature a high concentration of nutrients for the calories they contain, we created a Food Rating System. This system allows us to highlight the foods that are especially rich in particular nutrients. The following chart shows the nutrients for which this food is either an excellent, very good, or good source (below the chart you will find a table that explains these qualifications). If a nutrient is not listed in the chart, it does not necessarily mean that the food doesn't contain it. It simply means that the nutrient is not provided in a sufficient amount or concentration to meet our rating criteria. (To view this food's in-depth nutritional profile that includes values for dozens of nutrients - not just the ones rated as excellent, very good, or good - please use the link below the chart.) To read this chart accurately, you'll need to glance up in the top left corner where you will find the name of the food and the serving size we used to calculate the food's nutrient composition. This serving size will tell you how much of the food you need to eat to obtain the amount of nutrients found in the chart. Now, returning to the chart itself, you can look next to the nutrient name in order to find the nutrient amount it offers, the percent Daily Value (DV%) that this amount represents, the nutrient density that we calculated for this food and nutrient, and the rating we established in our rating system. For most of our nutrient ratings, we adopted the government standards for food labeling that are found in the U.S. Food and Drug Administration's "Reference Values for Nutrition Labeling." Read more background information and details of our rating system.
Broccoli, chopped, cooked
1.00 cup
156.00 grams
Calories: 55
GI: very low
NutrientAmountDRI/DV
(%)		Nutrient
Density		World's Healthiest
Foods Rating
vitamin K220.12 mcg24580.6excellent
vitamin C101.24 mg13544.5excellent
chromium18.55 mcg5317.5excellent
folate168.48 mcg4213.9excellent
pantothenic acid0.96 mg196.3very good
fiber5.15 g186.1very good
vitamin B60.31 mg186.0very good
vitamin E2.26 mg (ATE)155.0very good
phosphorus104.52 mg154.9very good
choline62.56 mg154.9very good
vitamin B20.19 mg154.8very good
vitamin A120.74 mcg RAE134.4very good
manganese0.30 mg134.3very good
copper0.10 mg113.7very good
potassium457.08 mg103.2good
vitamin B10.10 mg82.7good
omega-3 fats0.19 g82.6good
magnesium32.76 mg82.6good
protein3.71 g72.4good
zinc0.70 mg62.1good
calcium62.40 mg62.1good
iron1.05 mg61.9good
vitamin B30.86 mg51.8good
selenium2.50 mcg51.5good
World's Healthiest
Foods Rating		Rule
excellentDRI/DV>=75% OR
Density>=7.6 AND DRI/DV>=10%
very goodDRI/DV>=50% OR
Density>=3.4 AND DRI/DV>=5%
goodDRI/DV>=25% OR
Density>=1.5 AND DRI/DV>=2.5%

In-Depth Nutritional Profile

In addition to the nutrients highlighted in our ratings chart, here is an in-depth nutritional profile for Broccoli. This profile includes information on a full array of nutrients, including carbohydrates, sugar, soluble and insoluble fiber, sodium, vitamins, minerals, fatty acids, amino acids and more.
Broccoli, chopped, cooked
(Note: "--" indicates data unavailable)
1.00 cup
(156.00 g)		GI: very low
BASIC MACRONUTRIENTS AND CALORIES
nutrientamountDRI/DV
(%)
Protein3.71 g7
Carbohydrates11.20 g5
Fat - total0.64 g1
Dietary Fiber5.15 g18
Calories54.603
MACRONUTRIENT AND CALORIE DETAIL
nutrientamountDRI/DV
(%)
Carbohydrate:
Starch-- g
Total Sugars2.17 g
Monosaccharides1.92 g
Fructose1.15 g
Glucose0.76 g
Galactose0.00 g
Disaccharides0.12 g
Lactose0.00 g
Maltose0.00 g
Sucrose0.12 g
Soluble Fiber0.59 g
Insoluble Fiber4.56 g
Other Carbohydrates3.88 g
Fat:
Monounsaturated Fat0.06 g
Polyunsaturated Fat0.27 g
Saturated Fat0.12 g
Trans Fat0.00 g
Calories from Fat5.76
Calories from Saturated Fat1.11
Calories from Trans Fat0.00
Cholesterol0.00 mg
Water139.23 g
MICRONUTRIENTS
nutrientamountDRI/DV
(%)
Vitamins
Water-Soluble Vitamins
B-Complex Vitamins
Vitamin B10.10 mg8
Vitamin B20.19 mg15
Vitamin B30.86 mg5
Vitamin B3 (Niacin Equivalents)1.70 mg
Vitamin B60.31 mg18
Vitamin B120.00 mcg0
Biotin-- mcg--
Choline62.56 mg15
Folate168.48 mcg42
Folate (DFE)168.48 mcg
Folate (food)168.48 mcg
Pantothenic Acid0.96 mg19
Vitamin C101.24 mg135
Fat-Soluble Vitamins
Vitamin A (Retinoids and Carotenoids)
Vitamin A International Units (IU)2414.88 IU
Vitamin A mcg Retinol Activity Equivalents (RAE)120.74 mcg (RAE)13
Vitamin A mcg Retinol Equivalents (RE)241.49 mcg (RE)
Retinol mcg Retinol Equivalents (RE)0.00 mcg (RE)
Carotenoid mcg Retinol Equivalents (RE)241.49 mcg (RE)
Alpha-Carotene0.00 mcg
Beta-Carotene1449.24 mcg
Beta-Carotene Equivalents1449.24 mcg
Cryptoxanthin0.00 mcg
Lutein and Zeaxanthin1684.80 mcg
Lycopene0.00 mcg
Vitamin D
Vitamin D International Units (IU)0.00 IU0
Vitamin D mcg0.00 mcg
Vitamin E
Vitamin E mg Alpha-Tocopherol Equivalents (ATE)2.26 mg (ATE)15
Vitamin E International Units (IU)3.37 IU
Vitamin E mg2.26 mg
Vitamin K220.12 mcg245
Minerals
nutrientamountDRI/DV
(%)
Boron385.51 mcg
Calcium62.40 mg6
Chloride35.88 mg
Chromium18.55 mcg53
Copper0.10 mg11
Fluoride0.01 mg0
Iodine3.12 mcg2
Iron1.05 mg6
Magnesium32.76 mg8
Manganese0.30 mg13
Molybdenum-- mcg--
Phosphorus104.52 mg15
Potassium457.08 mg10
Selenium2.50 mcg5
Sodium63.96 mg4
Zinc0.70 mg6
INDIVIDUAL FATTY ACIDS
nutrientamountDRI/DV
(%)
Omega-3 Fatty Acids0.19 g8
Omega-6 Fatty Acids0.08 g
Monounsaturated Fats
14:1 Myristoleic0.00 g
15:1 Pentadecenoic0.00 g
16:1 Palmitol0.01 g
17:1 Heptadecenoic0.00 g
18:1 Oleic0.05 g
20:1 Eicosenoic0.00 g
22:1 Erucic0.00 g
24:1 Nervonic0.00 g
Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids
18:2 Linoleic0.08 g
18:2 Conjugated Linoleic (CLA)-- g
18:3 Linolenic0.19 g
18:4 Stearidonic0.00 g
20:3 Eicosatrienoic0.00 g
20:4 Arachidonic0.00 g
20:5 Eicosapentaenoic (EPA)0.00 g
22:5 Docosapentaenoic (DPA)0.00 g
22:6 Docosahexaenoic (DHA)0.00 g
Saturated Fatty Acids
4:0 Butyric0.00 g
6:0 Caproic0.00 g
8:0 Caprylic0.00 g
10:0 Capric0.00 g
12:0 Lauric0.00 g
14:0 Myristic0.00 g
15:0 Pentadecanoic0.00 g
16:0 Palmitic0.09 g
17:0 Margaric0.00 g
18:0 Stearic0.02 g
20:0 Arachidic0.01 g
22:0 Behenate0.01 g
24:0 Lignoceric0.00 g
INDIVIDUAL AMINO ACIDS
nutrientamountDRI/DV
(%)
Alanine0.17 g
Arginine0.30 g
Aspartic Acid0.49 g
Cysteine0.05 g
Glutamic Acid0.81 g
Glycine0.15 g
Histidine0.09 g
Isoleucine0.14 g
Leucine0.22 g
Lysine0.23 g
Methionine0.06 g
Phenylalanine0.17 g
Proline0.16 g
Serine0.19 g
Threonine0.14 g
Tryptophan0.05 g
Tyrosine0.09 g
Valine0.20 g
OTHER COMPONENTS
nutrientamountDRI/DV
(%)
Ash1.20 g
Organic Acids (Total)-- g
Acetic Acid-- g
Citric Acid-- g
Lactic Acid-- g
Malic Acid-- g
Taurine-- g
Sugar Alcohols (Total)-- g
Glycerol-- g
Inositol-- g
Mannitol-- g
Sorbitol-- g
Xylitol-- g
Artificial Sweeteners (Total)-- mg
Aspartame-- mg
Saccharin-- mg
Alcohol0.00 g
Caffeine0.00 mg

Note:

The nutrient profiles provided in this website are derived from The Food Processor, Version 10.12.0, ESHA Research, Salem, Oregon, USA. Among the 50,000+ food items in the master database and 163 nutritional components per item, specific nutrient values were frequently missing from any particular food item. We chose the designation "--" to represent those nutrients for which no value was included in this version of the database.

References

  • Ambrosone CB, Tang L. Cruciferous vegetable intake and cancer prevention: role of nutrigenetics. Cancer Prev Res (Phila Pa). 2009 Apr;2(4):298-300. 2009.
  • Angeloni C, Leoncini E, Malaguti M, et al. Modulation of phase II enzymes by sulforaphane: implications for its cardioprotective potential. J Agric Food Chem. 2009 Jun 24;57(12):5615-22. 2009.
  • Armah CN, Derdemezis C, Traka MH, et al. Diet rich in high glucoraphanin broccoli reduces plasma LDL cholesterol: Evidence from randomised controlled trials. Mol Nutr Food Res. 2015 May;59(5):918-26.
  • Bahadoran Z, Mirmiran P, and Azizi F. Potential efficacy of broccoli sprouts as a unique supplement for management of type 2 diabetes and its complications. J Med Food. 2013 May;16(5):375-82.
  • Banerjee S, Wang Z, Kong D, et al. 3,3'-Diindolylmethane enhances chemosensitivity of multiple chemotherapeutic agents in pancreatic cancer. 3,3'-Diindolylmethane enhances chemosensitivity of multiple chemotherapeutic agents in pancreatic cancer. 2009.
  • Bhattacharya A, Tang L, Li Y, et al. Inhibition of bladder cancer development by allyl isothiocyanate. Carcinogenesis. 2010 Feb;31(2):281-6. 2010.
  • Bongoni R, Verkerk R, Steenbekkers B, et al. Evaluation of different cooking conditions on broccoli (Brassica oleracea var. italica) to improve the nutritional value and consumer acceptance. Plant Foods Hum Nutr. 2014 Sep;69(3):228-34.
  • Bryant CS, Kumar S, Chamala S, et al. Sulforaphane induces cell cycle arrest by protecting RB-E2F-1 complex in epithelial ovarian cancer cells. Molecular Cancer 2010, 9:47. 2010.
  • Carpenter CL, Yu MC, and London SJ. Dietary isothiocyanates, glutathione S-transferase M1 (GSTM1), and lung cancer risk in African Americans and Caucasians from Los Angeles County, California. Nutr Cancer. 2009;61(4):492-9. 2009.
  • Christopher B, Sanjeez K, Sreedhar C, et al. Sulforaphane induces cell cycle arrest by protecting RB-E2F-1 complex in epithelial ovarian cancer cells. Molecular Cancer Year: 2010 Vol: 9 Issue: 1 Pages/record No.: 47. 2010.
  • Chuanphongpanich S, Phanichphant S, Bhuddasukh D et al. Bioactive glucosinolates and antioxidant properties of broccoli seeds cultivated in Thailand. Songklanakarin Journal of Science and Technology Year: 2006 Vol: 28 Issue: Suppl.1 Pages/record No.: 55-61. 2006.
  • Clarke JD, Dashwood RH, Ho E. Multi-targeted prevention of cancer by sulforaphane. Cancer Lett. 2008 Oct 8;269(2):291-304. 2008.
  • Cornelis MC, El-Sohemy A, Campos H. GSTT1 genotype modifies the association between cruciferous vegetable intake and the risk of myocardial infarction. Am J Clin Nutr. 2007 Sep;86(3):752-8. 2007.
  • Dekker M, Dekkers E, Jasper A, et al. Predictive modelling of vegetable firmness after thermal pre-treatments and steaming. Innovative Food Science & Emerging Technologies, Volume 25, October 2014, pages 14-18.
  • dos Reis LCR, de Oliveira VR, Hagen MEK, et al. Carotenoids, flavonoids, chlorophylls, phenolic compounds and antioxidant activity in fresh and cooked broccoli (Brassica oleracea var. Avenger) and cauliflower (Brassica oleracea var. Alphina F1). LWT - Food Science and Technology, Volume 63, Issue 1, September 2015, pages 177-183.
  • dos Reis LCR, de Oliveira VR, Hagen MEK, et al. Effect of cooking on the concentration of bioactive compounds in broccoli (Brassica oleracea var. Avenger) and cauliflower (Brassica oleracea var. Alphina F1) grown in an organic system. Food Chemistry, Volume 172, 1 April 2015, pages 770-777.
  • Drewnowski A. New metrics of affordable nutrition: which vegetables provide most nutrients for least cost? J Acad Nutr Diet. 2013 Sep;113(9):1182-7.
  • Higdon JV, Delage B, Williams DE, et al. Cruciferous Vegetables and Human Cancer Risk: Epidemiologic Evidence and Mechanistic Basis. Pharmacol Res. 2007 March; 55(3): 224-236. 2007.
  • Ho E, Clarke JD, Dashwood RH. Dietary sulforaphane, a histone deacetylase inhibitor for cancer prevention. J Nutr. 2009 Dec;139(12):2393-6. 2009.
  • Hofmann T, Kuhnert A, Schubert A et al. Modulation of detoxification enzymes by watercress: in vitro and in vivo investigations in human peripheral blood cells. Eur J Nutr. 2009 Dec;48(8):483-91. 2009.
  • Hu J, Straub J, Xiao D, et al. Phenethyl isothiocyanate, a cancer chemopreventive constituent of cruciferous vegetables, inhibits cap-dependent translation by regulating the level and phosphorylation of 4E-BP1. Cancer Res. 2007 Apr 15;67(8):3569-73. 2007.
  • Hutzen B, Willis W, Jones S, et al. Dietary agent, benzyl isothiocyanate inhibits signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 phosphorylation and collaborates with sulforaphane in the growth suppression of PANC-1 cancer cells. Cancer Cell International 2009, 9:24. 2009.
  • James D, Devaraj S, Bellur P, et al. Novel concepts of broccoli sulforaphanes and disease: induction of phase II antioxidant and detoxification enzymes by enhanced-glucoraphanin broccoli. Nutr Rev. 2012 Nov;70(11):654-65.
  • Jiang H, Shang X, Wu H, et al. Combination treatment with resveratrol and sulforaphane induces apoptosis in human U251 glioma cells. Neurochem Res. 2010 Jan;35(1):152-61. 2010.
  • Kahlon TS, Chiu MC, and Chapman MH. Steam cooking significantly improves in vitro bile acid binding of collard greens, kale, mustard greens, broccoli, green bell pepper, and cabbage. Nutr Res. 2008 Jun;28(6):351-7. 2008.
  • Konsue N, Ioannides C. Modulation of carcinogen-metabolising cytochromes P450 in human liver by the chemopreventive phytochemical phenethyl isothiocyanate, a constituent of cruciferous vegetables. Toxicology. 2010 Feb 9;268(3):184-90. 2010.
  • Kunimasa K, Kobayashi T, Kaji K et al. Antiangiogenic effects of indole-3-carbinol and 3,3'-diindolylmethane are associated with their differential regulation of ERK1/2 and Akt in tube-forming HUVEC. J Nutr. 2010 Jan;140(1):1-6. 2010.
  • Lakhan SE, Kirchgessner A, Hofer M. Inflammatory mechanisms in ischemic stroke: therapeutic approaches. Journal of Translational Medicine 2009, 7:97. 2009.
  • Larsson SC, Andersson SO, Johansson JE, et al. Fruit and vegetable consumption and risk of bladder cancer: a prospective cohort study. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 2008 Sep;17(9):2519-22. 2008.
  • Li F, Hullar MAJ, Schwarz Y, et al. Human Gut Bacterial Communities Are Altered by Addition of Cruciferous Vegetables to a Controlled Fruit- and Vegetable-Free Diet. Journal of Nutrition, Vol. 139, No. 9, 1685-1691, September 2009. 2009.
  • Lin J, Kamat A, Gu J, et al. Dietary intake of vegetables and fruits and the modification effects of GSTM1 and NAT2 genotypes on bladder cancer risk. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 2009 Jul;18(7):2090-7. 2009.
  • Machijima Y, Ishikawa C, Sawada S, et al. Anti-adult T-cell leukemia/lymphoma effects of indole-3-carbinol. Retrovirology 2009, 6:7. 2009.
  • Nakamura Y, Yogosawa S, Izutani Y et al. A combination of indol-3-carbinol and genistein synergistically induces apoptosis in human colon cancer HT-29 cells by inhibiting Akt phosphorylation and progression of autophagy. Mol Cancer. 2009 Nov 12;8:100. 2009.
  • Navarro SL, Chang JL, Peterson S et al. Modulation of human serum glutathione S-transferase A1/2 concentration by cruciferous vegetables in a controlled feeding study is influenced by GSTM1 and GSTT1 genotypes. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 2009 Nov;18(11):2974-8. 2009.
  • Nettleton JA, Steffen LM, Mayer-Davis EJ, et al. Dietary patterns are associated with biochemical markers of inflammation and endothelial activation in the Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis (MESA). Am J Clin Nutr. 2006 Jun;83(6):1369-79. 2006.
  • Nguyen AT, Bahry AM, Shen KQ, et al. Consumption of broccoli sprouts during late gestation and lactation confers protection against developmental delay induced by maternal inflammation. Behav Brain Res. 2016 Jul 1;307:239-49. doi: 10.1016/j.bbr.2016.03.017. Epub 2016 Mar 31.
  • Nugrahedi PY, Hantoro I, Verkerk R, et al. Practices and health perception of preparation of Brassica vegetables: translating survey data to technological and nutritional implications. Int J Food Sci Nutr. 2015;66(6):633-41.
  • Pagliaro B, Santolamazza C, Simonelli F, et al. Phytochemical Compounds and Protection from Cardiovascular Diseases: A State of the Art. Biomed Res Int. 2015;2015:918069.
  • Pellegrini N, Chiavaro E, Gardana C et al. Effect of Different Cooking Methods on Color, Phytochemical Concentration, and Antioxidant Capacity of Raw and Frozen Brassica Vegetables. J. Agric. Food Chem., 2010, 58 (7), pp 4310'4321. 2010.
  • Prawan A, Saw CL, Khor TO, et al. Anti-NF-kappaB and anti-inflammatory activities of synthetic isothiocyanates: effect of chemical structures and cellular signaling. Chem Biol Interact. 2009 May 15;179(2-3):202-11. 2009.
  • Riso P, Vendrame S, Del Bo' C, et al. Effect of 10-day broccoli consumption on inflammatory status of young healthy smokers. Int J Food Sci Nutr. 2014 Feb;65(1):106-11.
  • Roy MK, Juneja LR, Isobe S, et al. Steam processed broccoli (Brassica oleracea) has higher antioxidant activity in chemical and cellular assay systems. Food Chemistry, Volume 114, Issue 1, 1 May 2009, pages 263-269.
  • Rungapamestry V, Duncan AJ, Fuller Z et al. Effect of cooking brassica vegetables on the subsequent hydrolysis and metabolic fate of glucosinolates. Proc Nutr Soc. 2007 Feb;66(1):69-81. 2007.
  • Sarvan I, Bouwmeester H, Dekker M, et al. Sulforaphane formation and bioaccessibility are more affected by steaming time than meal composition during in vitro digestion of broccoli. Food Chemistry, Volume 214, 1 January 2017, pages 580-586.
  • Severini C, Giuliani R, De Filippis A, et al. Influence of different blanching methods on colour, ascorbic acid and phenolics content of broccoli. J Food Sci Technol. 2016 Jan;53(1):501-10.
  • Silberstein JL, Parsons JK. Evidence-based principles of bladder cancer and diet. Urology. 2010 Feb;75(2):340-6. 2010.
  • Sosinska E and Obiedzinski MW. Effect of processing on the content of glucobrassicin and its degradation products in broccoli and cauliflower. Food Control, Volume 22, Issue 8, August 2011, pages 1348-1356.
  • Steinbrecher A, Linseisen J. Dietary Intake of Individual Glucosinolates in Participants of the EPIC-Heidelberg Cohort Study. Ann Nutr Metab 2009;54:87-96. 2009.
  • Sudini K, Diette GB, Breysse PN, et al. A Randomized Controlled Trial of the Effect of Broccoli Sprouts on Antioxidant Gene Expression and Airway Inflammation in Asthmatics. J Allergy Clin Immunol Pract. 2016 Apr 27. pii: S2213-2198(16)30048-4. doi: 10.1016/j.jaip.2016.03.012. [Epub ahead of print]
  • Tang L, Zirpoli GR, Guru K et al. Consumption of Raw Cruciferous Vegetables is Inversely Associated with Bladder Cancer Risk. Cancer Res. 2007 Apr 15;67(8):3569-73. 2007.
  • Taraseviien Z, Danilenko E, Jarien E et al. Changes in Some Chemical Components During Germination of Broccoli Seeds. Notulae Botanicae Horti Agrobotanici Cluj-Napoca Year: 2009 Vol: 37 Issue: 2 Pages/record No.: 173-176. 2009.
  • Tarozzi A, Morroni F, Merlicco A, et al. Sulforaphane as an inducer of glutathione prevents oxidative stress-induced cell death in a dopaminergic-like neuroblastoma cell line. J Neurochem. 2009 Dec;111(5):1161-71. 2009.
  • Thompson CA, Habermann TM, Wang AH, et al. Antioxidant intake from fruits, vegetables and other sources and risk of non-Hodgkin's lymphoma: the Iowa Women's Health Study. Int J Cancer. 2010 Feb 15;126(4):992-1003. 2010.
  • Traka M, Gasper AV, Melchini A et al. Broccoli consumption interacts with GSTM1 to perturb oncogenic signalling pathways in the prostate. PLoS One. 2008 Jul 2;3(7):e2568. 2008.
  • Valverde J, Reilly K, Villacreces S, et al. Variation in bioactive content in broccoli (Brassica oleracea var. italica) grown under conventional and organic production systems. J Sci Food Agric. 2015 Apr;95(6):1163-71.
  • Vasanthi HR, Mukherjee S and Das DK. Potential health benefits of broccoli- a chemico-biological overview. Mini Rev Med Chem. 2009 Jun;9(6):749-59. 2009.
  • Vivar OI, Saunier EF, Leitman DC et al. Selective activation of estrogen receptor-{beta} target genes by 3,3'-diindolylmethane. Endocrinology. 2010 Apr;151(4):1662-7. 2010.
  • Yanaka A, Fahey JW, Fukumoto A et al. Dietary sulforaphane-rich broccoli sprouts reduce colonization and attenuate gastritis in Helicobacter pylori-infected mice and humans. Cancer Prev Res (Phila Pa). 2009 Apr;2(4):353-60. 2009.
  • Yang G, Gao YT, Shu XO et al. Isothiocyanate exposure, glutathione S-transferase polymorphisms, and colorectal cancer risk. Am J Clin Nutr. 2010 Mar;91(3):704-11. 2010.
  • Zhang Y. Allyl isothiocyanate as a cancer chemopreventive phytochemical. Mol Nutr Food Res. 2010 Jan;54(1):127-35. 2010.
  • Zhong X, Dolan KD, and Almenar E. Effect of steamable bag microwaving versus traditional cooking methods on nutritional preservation and physical properties of frozen vegetables: A case study on broccoli (Brassica oleracea). Innovative Food Science & Emerging Technologies, Volume 31, October 2015, pages 116-122.
  • Zhu H, Jia Z, Zhou K et al. Cruciferous dithiolethione-mediated coordinated induction of total cellular and mitochondrial antioxidants and phase 2 enzymes in human primary cardiomyocytes: cytoprotection against oxidative/electr. Exp Biol Med (Maywood). 2009 Apr;234(4):418-29. 2009.
http://www.whfoods.com/genpage.php?tname=foodspice&dbid=9
Healthwise: Posted by at
Labels: , , , , , , , , , , , ,